Children At A Psychological Perspective Essay - 1697 Words

Now, to fully understand cognitive development in children at a psychological perspective we must first look at Jean Piaget, who was titled the most influential contributor to the term throughout the 20th century. According to Huitt, W., Hummel, J. (2003), Piaget â€Å"originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a genetic epistemologist. He was mainly interested in the biological influences on how we come to know. He believed that what distinguishes human beings from other animals is our ability to do abstract symbolic reasoning. Employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, Jean Piaget developed French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. Where, he discovered after administering these tests that younger children kept giving the wrong answers to certain questions required logical thinking. He became intrigued with the error that was considered to be childish mistakes of others, and thought it to be something more. Piaget was not interested quantifying how well children could check, spell or solving problems as a method for evaluating their I.Q. What he was more intrigued by was the path in which essential ideas like the general concept of number, time, amount, causality and equity had developed. Piaget suggested that humans grow and struggles to comprehend his/her encounters thus, to understand they create something that we call Schemas. McLeod, 2009 stated that Piaget (1952) defined schema as â€Å"a cohesive, repeatableShow MoreRelatedHow Do Parental Psychiatric Disorders Impact Children? Essay1422 Words   |  6 PagesPsychological Exploration: How Do Parental Psychiatric Disorders Impact Children? According to National Alliance on Mental Health (2016), recent findings have concluded that 1 in 5 adults have experience with a mental disorder in a given year. Children that are associated with these individuals can have different outcomes of life as compared to families without said individuals. 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Although not explicitly defined by Diener and Biswas-Diener, â€Å"psychological wealth† is the overall measure of happiness, beyond just fiscal affluence, including positive ties with other individuals and joyful temperaments (Biswas-Diener 168). By extending Biswas-Diener and Diener’s idea of â€Å"psy chological wealth† to include the perceptionRead MoreFunctionalist Perspective On Children, Regulation Of Sexual Activity Essay1520 Words   |  7 PagesFunctionalist believe that families perform certain functions that are a necessity when it comes to society. It focuses on children, regulation of sexual activity, as well as giving its affiliations a sense of identity. Functionalist â€Å"emphasize the importance of the family in maintaining the stability of society and the well-being of individuals.† They see the family as the key part of society, and how it evolves. Most of these ideas were brought up by Emile Durkheim that believed â€Å"division of labor

Social Facts Free Essays

string(64) " one example of this, where social facts ought to be different\." A. Social Facts Durkheim defined social facts as things external to, and coercive of, the actor. These are created from collective forces and do not emanate from the individual (Hadden, p. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Facts or any similar topic only for you Order Now 104). While they may not seem to be observable, social facts are things, and â€Å"are to be studied empirically, not philosophically† (Ritzer, p. 78). They cannot be deduced from pure reason or thought, but require a study of history and society in order to observe their effects and understand the nature of these social facts. In The Rules of Sociological Method, Durkheim begins by noting features such as the following (quote 3): Social Facts. When I fulfil my obligations as brother, husband, or citizen, when I execute my contracts, I perform duties which are defined, externally to myself and my acts, in law and in custom. Even if they conform to my own sentiments and I feel their reality subjectively, such reality is still objective, for I did not create them; I merely inherited them through my education. (Rules, p. 1). As examples of social facts, Durkheim cites religious beliefs, currency used to undertake transactions, and factors such as â€Å"the practices followed in my profession† (Rules, p. 2). These types of conduct or thought are not only external to the individual but are, moreover, endowed with coercive power, by virtue of which they impose themselves upon him, independent of his individual will. (Rules, p. 2). While obligations, values, attitudes, and beliefs may appear to be individual, Durkheim argues that these social facts exist at the level of society as a whole, arising from social relationships and human association. They exist as a result of social interactions and historical developments over long periods of time, and come from â€Å"varying collective representations and diverse forms of social organization† (Hadden, p. 04). As individuals who are born and raised in a society, these social facts are learned (through socialization) and generally accepted, but the individual has nothing to do with establishing these. While society is composed of individuals, society is not just the sum of individuals, and these facts exist at the level of society, not at the individual level. As such, these social facts do exist, they are the social reality of society, a reality that constitutes the proper study of sociology (Cuff et al. , p. 33). The study of social facts is the â€Å"distinct object or subject matter of sociology† (Hadden, p. 105). Durkheim istinguishes social facts from psychological, biological, or economic facts by noting that these are social and rooted in group sentiments and values. At the same time, he distinguishes the study of social facts from philosophy by noting that the real effects of social facts are â€Å"manifested in external indicators of sentiments such as religious doctrines, laws, moral codes† (Hadden, p. 105) and these effects can be observed and studied by the sociologist. The study of social facts is thus a large part of the study of sociology. In order to do this, the sociologist must â€Å"rid themselves of preconceptions† (Hadden, p. 07) and undertake objective study which can â₠¬Å"focus on objective, external indicators such as religious doctrines or laws† (Hadden, p. 107). Each social fact is real, something that is constraining on the individual and external to the actor. The social fact is not just in the mind of the individual – that is, these facts are more than psychological facts. That these exist in society as a whole, over time, and sometimes across societies, provides some proof of this. At the same time they are in the minds of individuals so they are also mental states. Ritzer notes that social facts can be considered to be mental phenomena that are external to and coercive of psychological facts, such as human instincts. The individual mental state could be considered to intervene between social fact and action (Ritzer, p. 105). Durkheim may not have provided a sufficient analysis of the assumptions underlying, or the characteristics of, these mental states. For Durkheim the study of sociology should be the study of social facts, attempting to find the causes of social facts and the functions of these social facts. Social facts regulate human social action and act as constraints over individual behaviour and action. They may be enforced with law, with clearly defined penalties associated with violation of the sentiments and values of the group. Sanctions may be associated with social facts, for example as in religion, where resistance may result in disapproval from others or from spiritual leaders. Individuals may be unaware of social facts and generally accept them. In this case, individuals may accept the values and codes of society and accept them as their own. Two types of social facts are material and non-material social facts. Material social facts are features of society such as social structures and institutions. These could be the system of law, the economy, church and many aspects of religion, the state, and educational institutions and structures. They could also include features such as channels of communication, urban structures, and population distribution. While these are important for understanding the structures and form of interaction in any society, it is nonmaterial social facts that constitute the main subject of study of sociology. Nonmaterial social facts are social facts which do not have a material reality. They consist of features such as norms, values, and systems of morality. Some contemporary examples are the norm of the one to three child family, the positive values associated with family structures, and the negative associations connected to aggression and anger. In Durkheim’s terminology, some of these nonmaterial social facts are morality, collective consciousness, and social currents. An example of the latter is Durkheim’s analysis of suicide. Social facts can also be divided into normal and pathological social facts (Hadden, pp. 08-9). Normal social facts are the most widely distributed and useful social facts, assisting in the maintenance of society and social life. Pathological social facts are those that we might associate with social problems and ills of various types. Suicide is one example of this, where social facts ought to be different. You read "Social Facts" in category "Es say examples" For Durkheim, the much greater frequency of the normal is proof of the superiority of the normal. Durkheim later modified the notion of a single collective consciousness, and adopted the view that there were collective representations as part of specific states of substrata of the collective. That is, there may be different norms and values for different groups within society. These collective representations are also social facts because they are in the consciousness of some collective and are not reducible to individual consciousnesses (Ritzer, p. 87). The social structures, institutions, norms and values that have become part of the study of sociology can be derived from Durkheim’s approach, and today there is little difficulty distinguishing sociology from psychology. B. Suicide After Durkheim wrote The Rules of Sociological Method, he tackled the subject of suicide as an example of how a sociologist can study a subject that seems extremely personal, with no social aspect to it – even being anti-social. It could be argued that suicide is such a personal act that it involves only personal psychology and purely individual thought processes. Durkheim’s aim was not to explain or predict an individual tendency to suicide, but to explain one type of nonmaterial social facts, social currents. Social currents are characteristics of society, but may not have the permanence and stability that some parts of collective consciousness or collective representation have. They may be associated with movements such as â€Å"enthusiasm, indignation, and pity. † (Ritzer, p. 87). Hadden notes that Durkheim wished to show that sociological factors were â€Å"capable of explaining much about such anti-social phenomena† (Hadden, p. 109). In the case of suicide, these social currents are expressed as suicide rates, rates that differ among societies, and among different groups in society. These rates show regularities over time, with changes in the rates often occurring at similar times in different societies. Thus these rates can be said to be social facts (or at least the statistical representation of social facts) in the sense that they are not just personal, but are societal characteristics. This can be seen in the following quote (quote 12): Suicide Rates as Social Facts. At each moment of its history, therefore, each society has a definite aptitude for suicide. The relative intensity of this aptitude is measured by taking the proportion between the total number of voluntary deaths and the population of every age and sex. We will call this numerical datum the rate of mortality through suicide, characteristic of the society under consideration. †¦ The suicide-rate is therefore a factual order, unified and definite, as is shown by both its permanence and its variability. For this permanence would be inexplicable if it were not the result of a group of distinct characteristics, solidary with one another, and simultaneously effective in spite of different attendant circumstances; and this variability proves the concrete and individual quality of these same characteristics, since they vary with the individual character of society itself. In short, these statistical data express the suicidal tendency with which each society is collectively afflicted. †¦ Each society is predisposed to contribute a definite quota of voluntary deaths. This predisposition may therefore be the subject of a special study belonging to sociology. (Suicide, pp. 48, 51). Durkheim takes up the analysis of suicide in a very quantitative and statistical manner. While he did not have available to him very precise or complete data or sophisticated statistical techniques, his method is exemplary in showing how to test hypotheses, reject incorrect explanations for suicide, sort through a great variety of ossible explanations, and attempt to control for extraneous factors. Some of the factors that others had used to explain suicide were heredity, climate, race, individual psychopathic states (mental illness), and imitation. As an example of Durkheim’s method, consider how he analyzes cosmic factors, such as weather or season. Durkheim (Suic ide, p. 107) notes that in all countries suicide is greater in the summer months, that no country is an exception to this, and that the proportion of suicides in the six warmer months to the six colder months is very similar in each country. Durkheim notes that this has led some commentators to say the â€Å"heat increases the excitability of the nervous system† (Suicide, p. 108). But suicide may result from depression as much as from over-excitement, and heat cannot possibly act the same way on both causes. Further, a closer analysis by Durkheim considers temperature variations and shows that while suicides increase in number as temperature increases, suicides reach a peak before the temperature does. In addition, if temperature is a cause of suicide, warm countries might be expected to have more suicides than cold countries, but the opposite tends to be the case. A related explanation that Durkheim considers is that great changes in temperature are associated with suicide, but again he finds that there is no correlation between suicide rates and the fact of temperature change. Rather, the causes must be in some factor that has continuity over time. He then notes that the rates are more closely connected to the length of day, with suicides increasing as the days grow longer, and decreasing in number as the length of day declines. But it is not the sun itself which is the cause, because at noontime there are fewer suicides than at other times of the day. What Durkheim finds is that the factors associated with higher numbers of suicides must be those that relate to â€Å"the time when social life is at its height† (Suicide, p. 119). The time of day, the day of week, the season of the year, and so on, are not in themselves the reason for the changes in the number of suicides. Rather, the times when social life and interaction among people are greater, are also those associated with increased suicide. Durkheim concludes this section by saying (quote 13): Four Types of Suicide The manner in which social integration and regulation work can be better seen by examining the four fold classification of suicides that Durkheim developed. Durkheim ends his discussion of the organic-psychic and physical environmental factors by concluding that they cannot explain â€Å"each social group[s] †¦ specific tendency to suicide. † (Suicide, p. 145). By eliminating other explanations, Durkheim claims that these tendencies must depend on social causes and must be collective phenomena. The key to each type is a social factor, with the degrees of integration and regulation into society being either too high or too low. (The following discussion is drawn from Ritzer, pp. 90 ff. ). 1. Egoistic Suicide. This is the type of suicide that occurs where the degree of social integration is low, and there is a sense of meaningless among individuals. In traditional societies, with mechanical solidarity, this is not likely to be the cause of suicide. There the strong collective consciousness gives people a broad sense of meaning to their lives. Within modern society, the weaker collective consciousness means that people may not see the same meaning in their lives, and unrestrained pursuit of individual interests may lead to strong dissatisfaction. One of the results of this can be suicide. Individuals who are strongly integrated into a family structure, a religious group, or some other type of integrative group are less likely to encounter these problems, and that explains the lower suicide rates among them. The factors leading to egoistic suicide can be social currents such as depression and disillusionment. For Durkheim, these are social forces or social facts, even though it is the depressed or melancholy individual who takes his or her life voluntarily. â€Å"Actors are never free of the force of the collectivity: ‘However individualized a man may be, there is always something collective remaining – the very depression and melancholy resulting from this same exaggerated individualism. ‘† Also, on p. 214 of Suicide, Durkheim says â€Å"Thence are formed currents of depression and disillusionment emanating from no particular individual but expressing society’s state of disillusionment. Durkheim notes that â€Å"the bond attaching man to life relaxes because that attaching him to society is itself slack. †¦ The individual yields to the slightest shock of circumstance because the state of society has made him a ready prey to suicide. † (Suicide, pp. 214-215). 2. Altruistic Suicide. This is the type of suicide that occurs when integration is to o great, the collective consciousness too strong, and the â€Å"individual is forced into committing suicide. † (Ritzer, p. 91). Integration may not be the direct cause of suicide here, but the social currents that go along with this very high degree of integration can lead to this. The followers of Jim Jones of the People’s Temple or the members of the Solar Temple are an example of this, as are ritual suicides in Japan. Ritzer notes that some may â€Å"feel it is their duty† to commit suicide. (p. 91). Examples in primitive society cited by Durkheim are suicides of those who are old and sick, suicides of women following the death of their husband, and suicides of followers after the death of a chief. According to Durkheim this type of suicide may actually â€Å"springs from hope, for it depends on the belief in beautiful perspectives beyond this life. † 3. Anomic Suicide. Anomie or anomy come from the Greek meaning lawlessness. Nomos means usage, custom, or law and nemein means to distribute. Anomy thus is social instability resulting from breakdown of standards and values. (Webster’s Dictionary). This is a type of suicide related to too low a degree of regulation, or external constraint on people. As with the anomic division of labour, this can occur when the normal form of the division of labour is disrupted, and â€Å"the collectivity is temporarily incapable of exercising its authority over individuals. † (Ritzer, p. 92). This can occur either during periods associated with economic depression (stock market crash of the 1930s) or over-rapid economic expansion. New situations with few norms, the regulative effect of structures is weakened, and the individual may feel rootless. In this situation, an individual may be subject to anomic social currents. People that are freed from constraints become â€Å"slaves to their passions, and as a result, according to Durkheim’s view, commit a wide range of destructive acts, including killing themselves in greater numbers than they ordinarily would. † (Ritzer, p. , 92). In addition to economic anomie, Durkheim also spends time examining domestic anomie. For example, suicides of family members may occur after the death of a husband or wife. 4. Fatalistic Suicide. When regulation is too strong, Durkheim considers the possibility that â€Å"persons with futures pitilessly blocked and passions v iolently choked by oppressive discipline† may see no way out. The individual sees no possible manner in which their lives can be improved, and when in a state of melancholy, may be subject to social currents of fatalistic suicide. Summary. Durkheim’s analysis of suicide shows the manner n which the social as opposed to the psychological and biological can be emphasized, and how it results in some useful ways of analyzing the actions of individuals. Suicide rates as expressions of social currents are social facts that affect societies and individuals within those societies. The study of psychology is still useful in attempting to determine individua l motives and the manner in which the specific circumstances can lead to an individual deciding to voluntarily end their life. But an analysis of these circumstances should be set within the context of the social currents to which that individual is subject. The method of analysis of Durkheim should prove useful even today. In terms of suicide, the social causes are now well recognized, and any analysis of suicide would have to include these. Some combination of egoistic, anomic, and fatalistic types of suicide may help explain and understand this phenomenon. More generally, the method of Suicide is exemplary in providing researchers with a means of understanding the social factors that are associated with particular phenomena. Durkheim examines patterns on the data in an attempt to determine how social factors can play a role in explaining these phenomena. This might be applied to sociobiological arguments today. The trends themselves are not the cause, but indicative of a cause, a social explanation has to be found. C. Conclusions about Durkheim 1. Contributions a. Social Facts and Social Aspects. These are real things that do affect people. He had a strong structural view of society, and the manner in which each of us is influenced by these social facts and how we must fit into these. Durkheim attempted to see a role for the social as distinguished from the economic, psychological and biological. This can be seen in his view of the social influences on suicide rates, where he takes a wide variety of factors and considers their influence on the tendency or aptitude for suicide. The effect of each of these factors is not a simple connection between the factor and the tendency to suicide, but must be mediated by social factors. In particular, the social factors that he identified were the degree of integration and the degree of regulation. For modern theories of sociobiology, and the influence of genetics, Durkheim’s approach could prove a useful counter. References Cuff, E. C. , W. W. Sharrock and D. W. Francis, Perspectives in Sociology, third edition, London, Routledge, 1992. HM66 P36 1984 Durkheim, Emile, The Division of Labor in Society, New York, The Free Press, 1933. Referred to in notes as Division. HD 51 D98 Durkheim, Emile, The Rules of Sociological Method, New York, The Free Press, 1938. Referred to in notes as Rules. HM 24 D962 Durkheim, Emile, Suicide: A Study in Sociology, New York, The Free Press, 1951. Referred to in notes as Suicide. HV 6545 D812 Giddens, Anthony, Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the Writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971. HM19 G53. Ritzer, George, Sociological Theory, third edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1992. HM24 R4938. Social Explanation. If voluntary deaths increase from January to July, it is not because heat disturbs the organism, but because social life is more intense. To be sure, this greater intensity derives from the greater ease of development of social life in the Summer than in the Winter, owing to the sun’s position †¦ , the state of the atmosphere, etc. But the physical environment does not stimulate it directly; above all, it has no effect on the progression of suicide. The latter depends on social conditions. Suicide, pp. 121-122). While this is not a proof or determination of what causes suicide yet, Durkheim notes that the causes must relate to collective life and must be such that these time factors can be incorporated into an explanation. But the explanation must be social in nature, and cannot be simply related to natural factors, these natural factors must work soc ially, and affect some social aspects which are related to suicide. Note that Durkheim ‘s method here is very empirical, and he searches through various sorts of data and evidence to find factors associated with suicide. But the explanation is not simply a relation between these data and suicides. Rather he is searching for social causes or conditions that are expressed through these. That is, he uses data to discover patterns, but the patterns themselves are not the cause of the phenomenon. Rather the cause is social, and the observed, empirical patterns constitute a means of finding underlying causes. Another factor that Durkheim considers is religion. While he does find that religion is associated with suicide, in the sense that Protestant countries and regions have higher suicide rates than do Catholic ones, religious doctrines are not an important factor in explaining these differences. That is, suicide is condemned more or less equally in each religion, and doctrinal statements concerning suicide are all negative. If there is a difference between the two religions with respect to suicide rates, it must be in some aspect of social organization that differs between the two churches. But if this is the factor related to suicide, then it is the social organization that is the cause of the difference, not religion in itself. Giddens notes (p. 83) that Durkheim finds further proof of this in other factors related to social organization, that is, family structure. Where there is more integration in family structure, the suicides are lesser in number. Durkheim argues that the most important aspects of social organization and collective life for explaining differences in suicide rates are the degree of integration into and regulation by society. For Durkheim, integration is the â€Å"degree to which collective sentiments are shared† and regulation refers to â€Å"the degree of external constraint on people. (Ritzer, p. 90). Catholicism is a more highly integrated religion than Protestantism, and it is in this that the difference in suicide rates is expressed. That is, it is not the religious doctrines themselves but the different social organization of the two religions. As Giddens notes (p. 83), degree of integration of family structure is related in the same way to suicides. Those in larger familie s are less likely to commit suicide, whereas those in smaller families, or single, are more likely. Over time, various social factors also make their influence felt. Durkheim notes that there was a decline in the number of suicides in all the European countries in 1848, a year of revolution and political change throughout Europe. Times of political crisis, war, and economic change are also associated with changes in the rate of suicide. Each of these great social movements could be considered to be examples of social currents that have widespread impact within and across societies. Ritzer (p. 89) notes that Durkheim was making two arguments. First, he argued that different collectivities have different collective consciousness or collective representation. These produce different social currents, and these lead to different suicide rates. By studying different groups and societies, some of these currents can be analyzed, and the effect of these on suicide can be determined. Second, changes in the collective consciousness lead to changes in social currents. These are then associated with changes in suicide rates (quote 14): Sociological Explanation. The conclusion from all these facts is that the social suicide-rate can be explained only sociologically. At any given moment the moral constitution of society established the contingent of voluntary deaths. There is, therefore, for each people a collective force of a definite amount of energy, impelling men to self-destruction. The victim’s acts which at first seem to express only his personal temperament are really the supplement and prolongation of a social condition which they express externally. †¦ Each social group really has a collective inclination for the act, quite its own, and the source of all individual inclination, rather than the result. It is made up of the currents of egoism, altruism or anomy running through the society under consideration with the tendencies to languorous melancholy, active renunciation or exasperated weariness derivative from these currents. These tendencies of the whole social body, by affecting individuals, cause them to commit suicide. The private experiences usually thought to be the proximate causes of suicide have only the influence borrowed from the victim’s moral predisposition, itself and echo of the moral state of society. (Suicide, pp. 299-300). How to cite Social Facts, Essay examples

Life and Works of Leonardo Da Vinci Essay Example For Students

Life and Works of Leonardo Da Vinci Essay One of the most creative minds of Italian Renaissance not only as a great painter but also as a skilled sculptor, architect and a talented engineer, Leonardo da Vinci was born on 15th April 1452 near the Tuscan town of Vinci. He was an illegitimate child of Ser Pierro da Vinci an influential local lawyer and a young peasant girl named Caterina, who were in wedlock. Leonardo spent his early childhood till 1457 in a amlet of Anchiano, 5 km from Vinci with his mother and her parents. His father San Pierro, after a series of marriages and divorces eventually married to a lady from wealthy family where 5 year old Leonardo was a welcome addition. As a child Leonardo was very intelligent with a great talent for arithmetic and playing lyre as well as singing. His early education was done at home in Vinci where he lived in a big estate with his father, stepmother, several brothers and sisters and most importantly his Uncle Francesco who was a farmer and had a love for nature. Young Leonardo pent a great deal of time with his uncle working outdoors, drawing sketches and found him influential during his formative years. Leonardo was educated in various fields including arithmetic, geometry, music and latin till the age of 14. However, it was his drawing and painting skills that stood out foremost and to further develop his talents, at the age of 15, he went for apprenticeship to the then, renowned workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio in Florence. Florence in those early Renaissance days was an independent republic and a commercial centre, and was developing into hub of artistic talent that was seminal in shaping the Italian Renaissance. Andrea del Verrochios workshop was among the best in Florence and was associated with education of several great Renaissance artists apart from Leonardo like Perugino, Ghirlandaio, and Sandro Boticelli. During the apprenticeship Leonardo learnt not only painting, sculpting and modelling, but also a wide variety of technical trade skills like drafting, metallurgy, plaster casting, chemistry, mechanics and carpentry. He used his scientific understanding to enhance his paintings. He studied and sketched rocks, caves, fossils, birds and horses. Later during the apprenticeship he started developing his own niche in inventing flying machines, diving suites etc. Among one of the earliest works of Leonardo was his contribution in the painting Baptism of Christ along with Verrochio in 1472 where he painted the face of an angel holding Jesus robe. His work pleased Verrochio so much that he gave Leonardo bigger projects and Leonardo stayed at the workshop till 1477 creating fine examples of art. In search of new challenges, and money, Leonardo went to serve the Duke of Milan in 1482. He worked for 17 years in Milan on various projects including painting, culpting, designing for elaborate festivals and also provided the Duke with 1485 to 1490 he produced experiments and studies based on a wide variety of subjects like flying machines, geometry, mechanics, municipal constructions, canals and bridges, war vehicles, combat equipments etc. He also supplied the Duke with war strategies and made him his strong patron. It was also during this time, he performed studies on structure of human anatomy at his buzzing workshop in Milan. He would often spend time outside studying nature or experimenting secretly in his workshop dissecting body parts of the dead to reveal the human anatomy, much gainst the conventional norms of the church. Leonardos curios mind compelled him to skip from one thing to other and hence a majority of Leonardos work is unfinished. During the 17 years at Milan, Leonardo completed only 6 paintings the most notable of them being The Last Supper and Virgin on the Rocks. During the last decade of the 1 5th century, Leonardo also developed a habit of maintaining his personal notebook, in which he used to draw sketches and write about his observations. His work covered four main themes: painting, architecture, mechanics and human anatomy nd is preserved in codices which are still being studied by many historians. In 1499, after the invasion of Milan by the French and the fall of Ludovico Sforza, Leonardo worked for several employers and travelled to various places in Italy including Venice, Florence, Rome, working on variety of projects. His most notable work, Mona Lisa was begun in 1503 and completed in 1506/07. During the last three years, Leonardo also served the Medici family in France where his patron King Frances I gifted him with a luxurious Chateau du Clos Luce at Amboise. Leonardo suffered paralysis in right hand during his old age in late sixties, but still he ontinued teaching. He died in on 2 May, 1519, aged 67 years, in his Chateau at Amboise. As per the legend, King Frances I was by his side at the time of his death. Contribution to Renaissance Leonardos scientific investigations and artworks have been seminal in influencing an ignorant early Renaissance Italian society on the path of knowledge, reasoning and science. Life is Beautiful - Surviving the Holocaust EssayThe painting reveals distance and the subject appears to be sitting closer to the viewer than the background. The dark hue of Mona Lisas dress contrasts with the lighter hues in the background and wrinkles on her dress are clearly silhouetted by the interplay of light and shade. Detailing of the portrait is done meticulously as the lines on her dress are repeated in a natural fashion and so are the line used to create roads and trees in background to form a realism in painting. Another interesting observation about Mona Lisa is the use of perspective whereby all lines lead to a single vanishing point behind her head a technique which many artists of early renaissance tried to develop like Perugino, Masaccio etc. Leonardo was also a master of using symbolism and here, he painted the right arm of the subject rested on left which personifies her as a loyal married woman of virtue, instead of using a wedding ring as a symbol. The mysterious smile is depicted by slight extensions at the end of the lips where as the eyes are stagnant at the viewer are the only communication with the audience. This creates an enigmatic, mysterious mood in the painting further accentuated by the conflicting landscape which exemplifies an approaching storm. The Last Supper: The Last Supper is a large mural painting done with tempura and oil paint on plaster, ade by Leonardo da Vinci in 1495-98, at the behest of Duke Ludovico Sforza of Milan. The painting is done on the wall of the refectory in the Monastery of Sta. Maria delle Grazie in Milan, where it complemented the communal monastic dinners. The Last Supper has been painted by many artists before and many artists after Leonardo did, and each of those versions revealed various perspectives. The version by Leonardo da Vinci consisted of a scene from the life of Jesus Christ as taken from Bible, whereby he is having the last supper with his 12 disciples and reveals that one f them would betray him. The painting explores various human emotions with expressions of shock, betrayal, surprise, and most importantly guilt on Judas face. Jesus is seated in the centre with 12 disciples seating on his either sides in a total of four triads. As a master of symbolism, Leonardo draws a figurative representation of approaching Jesus sacrifice for the salvation of mankind, the foundation of institution of mass or even a pre-fguration of the gathering of this local monastic community for communal meals. The triads symbolize the holy trinity and four groups suggest the our elements of universe fire, water, air and earth four directions, four seasons in just behind Jesus head and the one point linear perspective is accentuated by the tapestries on the sides of the walls that get shorter as they recede. This exemplifies distance and thus a three dimensional image on a plane. The pyramidal form of Jesus is accentuated by a meticulous geometric set up of the painting that covers the entire wall of the refectory and is strategically set up within the interior architectural design of the building. The dramatic feel is created by a Judicious use of light that ppears from the three windows, at the centre of the wall behind Jesus head whose mannerism is calm and composed in spite of the upheaval around him on the table. Judas is shown as sitting in extreme left corner in the first triad, with Peter and John. The three windows provide more aesthetic value to the dramatic set up rather than symbolic in this case. References: Mansen Raven. Leonardo Da Vincis Notebook Project. 2007. Web. 25 September 2013 Renaissance Man. Museum of Science. Boston. Web. 25 September 2013. Waggoner Ben. Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1 519), Department of Biology, University of Central Arkansas. Arkansas. Web. 5 September 2013. Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1519). BBC History. London. Web. 5 September 2013. Duoma , Michael, curator. Leonardo Da Vincis Chiaroscuro. WebExhibits. Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancements, Washington DC. Web. 25 September 2013 University of Arts. Universal Leonardo. University of Arts. London. Web. 25 September 2013. The Mona Lisa. Global Studies, Art Historical Analysis. Web. 25 September 2013. Stockstad, M. , Cothren, M. W. , Art of High Renaissance Reformation, Art a Brief History, 5th Editio n, Pearson Education Inc. , Laurence King Publishing Limited, London. Retrieved on 25 September 2013.

Why Convicted Felons Should Not Be Allowed to Vote free essay sample

This essay discusses my reflection on whether or not felons should have the right to vote. A felon is defined as a person who has been convicted of a felony, which is a crime punishable by death or a term in state or federal prison. A felony is a serious crime usually punishable by imprisonment or death. Convicted felons should not be allowed to vote. Many Americans were not allowed to vote these past elections. It wasn’t because they didn’t pay taxes or were mentally incompetent or underage. The reason why they can’t vote is because they are convicted felons. Once someone has committed a serious crime or felony, they have shown that they are not trustworthy enough to vote. Because they disobeyed the law, they should not have the obligation to vote. If one is sent to prison, they have agreed that most of their rights have been taken. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Convicted Felons Should Not Be Allowed to Vote or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Prison is meant to be a punishment and one of their punishments is their loss of freedom and democratic rights for their time of their sentence. Convicted felons have also demonstrated poor judgment and should not be trusted with a vote. The main point of a prison sentence to show the offender and society that criminal behavior results in loss of freedom and most of the rights that freedom has to offer. Therefore felons should not be allowed to vote. Although some people believe that felons should be allowed to vote at any circumstance but I believe that if they are felons they have already lost that opportunity because they have decided to make the choice to participate in criminal activities. If the felon is not willing to follow the law himself, then they should not demand the right to vote. In California, felons serving time in prison or county jail are denied their right to vote. According to The Sentencing Project, 5. 3 million Americans were unable to vote in 2008 due to a felony conviction. Unfortunately, statistics show that this number is expected to rise to 6 million. Convicted felons are in prison for a reason, they committed a crime that was of a serious nature, whether it be robbing a bank, killing someone, etc. We do not need these type of people to help make decisions to choose the nations leaders. They obviously could not make a decision governing their own lives, we should definitely not allow them to make those kind of decisions for the rest of us. I believe voting is not just a right but a responsibility. Although, people against the opportunities of felons, have made some good points, there is not enough evidence to hold up the argument that it is wrong to take away the right to vote from felons. The act of taking away the right to vote from felons and ex-felons is called Disenfranchisement. People that are in favor of disenfranchisement believe that those convicted of a crime have shown poor judgment therefore, proves them unfit to make good decisions when it comes to elections. Some believe that felon disenfranchisement laws also have a big racial impact because certain percent of population have their right to vote taken away more than others. It seems like a good point but voting requires certain minimum standards of and trustworthiness. Those who have committed serious crimes against their fellow citizens do not meet the standards of voting.

buy custom The Competition essay

buy custom The Competition essay Our company faces stiff competition from various furniture houses in Boston, particularly Target, Wal-Mart, Bed and Bath, and Ikea. Despite the fact that the presence of these firms presents an obvious challenge to our company in terms of market share, it also reveals the presence of a large and strong unexploited market (Ereaut, Imms and Callingham 102). Nonetheless, our company intends to produce world-class furniture but at a competitive price. Competitor Profiles IKEA This is well established and internationally renowned home furnishing retailer. Recognized for its Scandinavian furniture style, IKEA has grown rapidly since it opened its doors for business in 1943. Strengths IKEA has a strong brand name that attracts a selective group of loyal customers. Moreover, it promises the same quality of products and services worldwide. Has a strong concept that is founded on providing a wide range of functional and well-designed products at low prices Has a recognized vision that aims at creating a better life for its customers Develops unique designs that are balance between quality, functionality, design and price Weaknesses Considering the size and scale of furniture business globally, IKEA finds it hard to control quality and standards. The need surging need for quality but low cost products poses a great challenge to this company. Poor communication with its other stakeholders and customers that results from the scale of business that the company operates Threats Just like other furniture store, IKEA is threatened by competitors New fashion, fads and culture Declining economies and frequent recessions Wal-Mart This is a retail store that sells a wide range f products, including furniture. Strengths Throughout the many years of operation, Wal-Mart has been able to develop a loyal employee and customer base. They sell by opening new branches in areas and countries that are often ignored by its competitors Provide its employees with flexible working hours, discounts for their purchase, health insurance and competitive wages Great pricing for its products Weaknesses For the company to keep and maintain their competitive prices, they have to buy stock in large quantities The company tends to keep more part time employees as compared to full time employees Synonymous of carrying and maintaining large inventories Trades in products from other nations with unfair labor laws Threats The impending unionization of its employees will a major impact throughout the company Current economic crises and inflation The rapid growth of warehouse retailers like Costco and our company Bed Bath and Beyond This is a company that deals with home furnishing and domestic merchandizing. This firm operates only in the United States. Strengths Diversified product range Market leadership Strong returns Weaknesses Stringiest legal proceeding in the U.S Geographic concentration Threats Slowdown in the countrys economy High interest rates in America Intense competition from established customers Competitive strategy Considering that RoomStyle is new in this market, our competitors are better than us in brand names because of the many yearss of conducting business. Therefore, in order to compete favorably, our company will employ three key strategies to create a competitive edge over the above competitors; Product quality, identity, and novelty Excellent sale attitude and high employee motivation Aggressive and innovative service options Employee education and training Each and every employee will be educated and trained not only in their fields of specialization, but also in the application and philosophy of the companys culture. Moreover, employees shall be receiving extensive information from the manager and be informed on the progress of the firm. Emphasis is being put on the extensive research into the integrity and quality of our service delivery. The companys systems and controls will be constantly tested to ascertain their high standards in serving the interests of the customers (Ereaut, Imms and Callingham(Ereaut, Imms and Callingham, 200 200). Inventory control and service costs will be monitored by the companys computer system and checked on a daily basis by management. Our strengths Unlike our competitors, RoomStyle will market its products to a specific market segment that is comprised of students and young urban professionals As compared to our competitors, our company is small in size, therefore it will be easy to run and maintain With our store-within-store initiative, we intend to establish a strong customer base Provision of a wide range of quality products at a competitive price Our threats Turbulent economic times that makes our operations difficult Well established competitors like Wal-Mart, Bed Bath and IKEA. However, we shall deal with these powerhouses by aggressively marketing our products to our target markets. High interest rates in America will affect our operation because we are a new company in the flooded furniture market. Buy custom The Competition essay

Business Complaint Letter

1234 Orange Street Small Building, Ohio 01234 July 1, 2005 Mr. Steve Smith Manager of Customer Service En Corporation Coolville, Suite 222 111 Fountain Drive Happy, NH 98765 RE: EnCorp Credit Cards: 111 222 333 4 555 XX 12 Years Credit card holder. Prior to that, it was the owner of the Rose Card for over 22 years. When EnCorp bought or acquired Rose 9 years ago, it seems that the company and credit card conversion seems to be remembered smoothly and seamlessly. For any large enterprise, claim letters are what they do everyday. By doing this, you can write a complaint letter more comfortably without worrying that you are the only claim letter. The following reasons are part of the most common reasons, but if your reasons are not on this list, please tell us your complaint. Perhaps I would like to complain about the same thing, but there are thousands of people who are not confident in writing it. If you write a complaint letter, it may help many others. The definition of claim letter s can be explained in various ways. The complaint is part of written communication. Generally, complaints are letters written to complain to the authorities. This is usually the case when there are other ways to complain when phones, e-mails, etc. fail. However, here we provide definitions of complaints notice in a formal way. In modern times, the commercial chain is not limited to the boundary of the country. As the business grows, its complexity also expands. Therefore, mistakes and mistakes are not strange in the business world. Damages to expired goods, poor quality or inadequate goods, inappropriate packaging, delivery after the specified date, and other shipment items may be incorrect. In the above situation, the buyer should suffer economic losses, so there is good reason to ask the seller for compensation. Businesses where sales and service provision are important are complaints. Claims can occur not only when the quality of goods and services are low, but also when the orde r is ambiguous, when there is a mistake in invoicing, shipping mistakes, processing of orders is very delayed. A letter of complaint should not be written in complaint or anger of mistake. The best way is not to react orally or in writing immediately. This letter should be written quietly based on facts. Unnecessary generality should not be made. Errors / errors should be clearly identified. It is necessary to take proactive measures against complaints. You can not associate a complaint with a previous complaint

Critical Analysis of Lee Smith's All the Days of Our Lives Essay

Critical Analysis of Lee Smith's All the Days of Our Lives - Essay Example But the scene she sets is dreamy and romantic, full of color, yet devoid of emotion. The reader is made more aware that Helen lives life in a haze of Salem cigarette smoke, romantic daydreams and unrealistic perceptions. The picture she paints of her ex-husband Howard firmly places him in a tidy, orderly, realistic place, with a similar personality, her opposite, it emerges. She cries in bouts of self-pity throughout the story, but there is unconscious humor in the picture painted of a lonely, old lady cutting frozen dinners in two. And still we are in Helen's car, as she segues into the image of herself as a nurse, all in white. Her stream of consciousness has deftly moved the reader from the hot interior of an automobile to the cool, dark sea, and back again to the mundane reality of a divorced woman with too much on her mind, a vivid imagination and a way with words. The 'solid sun', coupled with the 'pest control man' lend an air of irritation and frustration, and her character begins to emerge as less empathetic when she refuses to respond to her apparently helpful neighbor. Within the setting of her home, her attitude to her children, her soap on TV, her lack of impetus, all serve to further dispel the idea of a woman with some spirit. Her 15 year old daughter, Denise, appears to have more common-sense, determination and grasp on reality than her mother. "In some funny way, she is not young at all" and "Denise will never have a ball in her life, and both of them know it." (Smith, p. 3) The reality of the toddler, the put-upon teenager and angry little boy, all gathered in a small, chaotic domesticity are not to her liking, but she can block them out with the imaginary drama, the luxury and wealth on the screen which she prefers to immerse herself in. The question arises as to whether Helen is selfish, weak, ineffectual or a victim of circumstances beyond her control. The answer may be that she is all of these. The atmosphere she soaks up from her TV serves to remove her from the reality of her life. She gives desultory attention to real people, avid interest to soap actors. It becomes more apparent when Judy, her childless sister arrives, that Helen is dependent on others. Judy faces life as it is and she acts as a catalyst to bring Helen down to earth for a time, reminding her of the eccentricities of Howard. She takes off Helen's 'rose-tinted spectacles', with honesty and humor and the result is that: "Even tragic Helen has to laugh." (Smith, p. 6) Their interaction has defined the differences in the sisters and the roles they play for each other. It has made Helen think about marriages, her sister's, her parent's and shows the reader that despite negative experience, Helen's perceptions remain detached from reality. "Helen had known all about marriage anyway, that it was like a beautiful pastel country out there, waiting for her to

Origins, Development And History Of Classical Sonata Genre Essay

Origins, Development And History Of Classical Sonata Genre - Essay Example This genre of music has experienced contributions made by some of the best musicians that have ever existed. These musicians are said to be the founding fathers of the music that we experience in the 21st century. The first contributor of sonata is believed to be Arcangelo Corelli who developed two forms of Sonata including the ones that were deemed as suitable to be played within church area and the second form was considered appropriate to be used in courts in which a dance usually followed a particular prologue and these musical displays were made following the similar key (Bbc.co.uk 1). The sonata that was played in churches usually comprised of playing of one or two violins which usually started at a slower tone. After the slow tone, the tone used to be increased a bit and towards the end the pitch of the tone used to be quite lively to match the tunes of dance. In the beginning the pitch of the tones was not quite clearly to differentiate between different tones but with the us e of violin the tones became quite clear. On the other hand the sonata that was considered as appropriate for the church used to be completely based on dance based tunes. Later on a mix of both kinds of sonatas used to be experienced. Major percentage of the sonatas was contributed by Sebastian Bach but his focus was less on this form of music as compared to the others (Geck 585).

Identify the Individual at Risk of Skin Breakdown and Undertake the Appropriate Risk Assessment Essay Example for Free

Identify the Individual at Risk of Skin Breakdown and Undertake the Appropriate Risk Assessment Essay Upon arriving at the care home, I shut the door behind me, clocked in using my time card and signed the staff log book which is a requirement of the fire safety policy. Prior to starting my shift, I attended the hand over held in the staff office with closed doors to maintain confidentiality and privacy of the residents. The hand over gives me important changes in the residents health and social care needs, requirements and procedures that need implementing during the shift. One of the residents I usually care for is Mrs H who has just come back from a hospital admission. According to her care plan Mrs H was diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease Stage 4 which are predisposing factors for pressure sores. She is bed bound, cannot weight bear and had just undergone Open Reduction and Internal Fixation (ORIF) for fracture on her left tibia fibula which left her immobilised. She is also incontinent of urine and faeces which are all predisposing factors to sore development. As one of her primary carer, I was assigned to carry out a risk assessment for skin breakdown with the use of the Waterlow Scale. I knocked on Mrs Hs room before entering as a sign of respect for her privacy and greeted her good morning. I asked how she is and she smiled which means she is fine as she has difficulty speaking. I asked her if she would like to have her bed bath and she said yes please. I informed her that I also need to carry out a risk assessment for skin breakdown to identify if she is at risk of developing a pressure sore. I explained the procedures that she will expect, the reasons behind these and I asked for her permission to carry on. She obliged by softly saying ok in a very low voice. Before starting the assessment, I gathered all the things that I need. I observed standard precautions for infection control by washing my hands with soap and water and drying them with disposable paper towels. I wore a disposable plastic apron and donned a pair of disposable gloves to prevent the spread and transfer of infection from one person to another. With the help of my colleague, I gently and carefully took off Mrs Hs night dress informing her every step that I make to make her aware and to encourage her cooperation. I kept it in yellow laundry bag as per organisational policy on infection control and prevention. I covered her body with bath towels to maintain her privacy and keep her warm. I washed her face and body with the use of disposable Mediwipes with soap and warm water. I dried her up using the towel to keep her from freezing. I took off her nappy pad and washed her private front part properly and dried her afterwards. Then I informed Mrs H that I need to turn her on her side so that I can wash and examine her back. With coordinated movements from my colleague, we gently and carefully turned her on her side, taking special care not to put any undue pressure on her bad leg to prevent any further injury. I examined her back side taking note of pressure points or bony prominences on her shoulders, sacrum, elbows, ankles and heels. Her skin on her shoulders, spine, elbows and heels look fine but there is a redness on her sacral area which feels hotter than other areas of her skin. I asked Mrs H if she feels any pain in her bottom and she said yes in a very low voice. On her left heel is an abrasion which she developed while she was in the hospital. I washed her back and her bottom gently and dried them up properly as excess moisture can aggravate her skin condition. I put her soiled nappy pad in a plastic bag to be disposed of in the clinical waste bag. I applied aqueous creme on her skin especially on bony prominences to prevent drying. I applied sudocrem on her sacral area to soothe and to protect and help heal her skin. I put on a clean nappy pad on her, put on clean clothes and positioned her on her right side to relieve the pressure on her sacral area, using cushions to make her comfortable. The nurse-in-charge came inside the room to check on her left heel wound and I asked her how to clean it and what dressing should I use for it. She said I can clean it with sterile water and sterile gauze, dry it up and apply Versiva dressing for protection as advised by the tissue viability nurse. I disposed of my gloves and donned on a clean pair. I washed Mrs H wound on her heel with sterile water and sterile gauze, dried it up and applied Versiva dressing. I put on a pressure relief cushion on her left foot to relieve pressure, kept it supported and in a comfortable position. I thanked Mrs H for her cooperation during the procedure. I informed her about the condition of her skin and reassured her that it is well taken care of. I disposed of my apron, gloves and soiled dressings in the plastic bag, tied it and disposed it in a clinical waste bag. I washed my hands with soap and water again and dried it up to prevent the spread of infection.

Epic of Beowulf Essay - Armor in the Epic Poem, Beowulf -- Epic Beowul

Armor in the poem Beowulf      Ã‚  Ã‚   Armor mentioned in the poem Beowulf include helmets and chain mail. There are an incredible number of references to these battle-apparel in the poem, making this topic of armor a very relevant one to consider.    â€Å"Helmets are the most dramatic and often quoted item of armor found in Beowulf,† says Catherine M. Hills in â€Å"Beowulf and Archaeology.† Indeed, examining the poem, one finds copious references to helmets in just the first 400 lines of the poem:      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Boar-figures gleamed over plated cheek-guards,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   inlaid with gold; shining, fire-hardened,  Ã‚   fierce war-masks guarded their lives (303-6) iron-gray corselets,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   and grim mask-helmets (334) the Geatish leader  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   spoke in his turn, strong in his helmet (341-2) Now you may enter,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   in your battle-armor, wearing war-masks (395-6)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brave in his helmet [he advanced] till he stood  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   before the king (403-4)    â€Å"Beowulf’s own helmet was ‘inlaid with gold, hooped with lodly bands, and decorated with effigies of boars’† (Arnold 91). In Europe there have been found about 100 helmets dating mostly to the sixth and seventh centuries; of the three types, two are from the Romans. 37 are of the English-Scandinavian type, with a ridge running across the top from nose to rear. Some of these were found buried in cremations in Gotland. In England only three Anglo-Saxon helmets have been found: Benty Grange – 7th century; York – 8th Century; Sutton Hoo – 6th century. section of chain-mail was found attached to the York helmet as a nec... ...tion and design in the making of helmets especially.    BIBLIOGRAPHY       Arnold, Ralph. â€Å"Royal Halls – the Sutton Hoo ShipBurial.† In Beowulf: The Donaldson Translation, edited by Joseph F. Tuso. New York, W.W.Norton and Co.: 1975    Chickering, Howell D.. Beowulf A dual-Language Edition. New York: Anchor Books, 1977.    Clark, George. Beowulf. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990.    Cramp, Rosemary. â€Å"Beowulf and Archaeology.† In TheBeowulf Poet, edited by Donald K. Fry. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968.    Hills, Catherine M. â€Å"Beowulf and Archaeology.† In A Beowulf Handbook, edited by Robert Bjork and John D. Niles. Lincoln, Nebraska: Uiversity of Nebraska Press, 1997.    Stanley, E.G.. â€Å"Beowulf.† In The Beowulf Reader, edited by Peter S. Baker. New York: Garland Publishing, 2000.

Cyber Law: Its Implementation in Nepal

Research Proposal on A COMPARATIVE PROPOSAL FOR TRIAL BY JURY IN NEPALI LEGAL SYSTEM Submitted to BA/LLB Programme Nepal Law Campus Faculty of Law Tribhuvan University Submitted by SauravNath Pant BA/LLB, 3rd Year Roll No. 13 Section: A March 3, 2013 1. 1 Introduction I have always been a firm believer in trial by jury. Somehow it is ingrained in me. As it is in most Englishmen. It is a lesson which has been handed down from one generation to another during the last 800 years.The trial by jury – a tradition held dear to the British – is a legal proceeding in which a jury either makes a decision or, makes findings of fact which are then applied by a judge. It usually comprises of 12 men. The jury system is a system developed in the Common Law, taken as its integral part which mandates that â€Å"No free man shall be captured and or, imprisoned or, disseised of his freehold and or, exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor will we proceed against him by force or proceed again st him by arms, but by the lawful judgement of his peers. † The Jury System can be traced back upto the Greek and the Roman era.The Greeks were succeeded by the Romans while the Roman Empire collapsed. But it is largely the British System that has embodied the Jury System and established it as a tradition of the Common Law System. King William – the Conqueror established the Norman Dynasty in England by his conquest of England in 1066. The Jury System was introduced by a Norman King in England. One day the King was watching the justice delivery process, and noticed that a single judge could not always impart fair justice. Hence he observed that twelve laymen could give better justice than a judge.As a result he asked his advisors to compose a jury of 12 people along with a judge to settle the disputes filed at the court of law. The Magna Carta of 1215 further secured trial by jury stating that, * For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a serious offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood. In the same way, a merchant shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman the implements of his husbandry, if they fall upon the mercy of a royal court.None of these fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood. * Earls and barons shall be fined only by their equals, and in proportion to the gravity of their offence. * To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands, castles, liberties, or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equals, we will at once restore these. * If we have deprived or dispossessed any Welshmen of lands, liberties, or anything else in England or in Wales, without the lawful judgement of their equals, these are at once to be returned to them.A dispute on this point shall be determined in the Marches by the judgement of equals. English law shall apply to holdings of land in E ngland, Welsh law to those in Wales, and the law of the Marches to those in the Marches. The Welsh shall treat us and ours in the same way. It has already been stated that the history of Jury System covers over a period of 800 years. During that period the Jury System developed, and changed with time but never discarded. Some instances of its course of development is given below: 1. The Principle of Unanimous: This principle was established in 1367 and it lasted for 600 years until 1967.In 1967, the parliament altered it. The verdict was held valid if the majority was ten to two. 2. The jury were kept without food, heat or light once they retired to consider their verdict. The time –hallowed formula was, ‘Without meat, drink, fire or candle’ 3. Once only reasonable men (with some qualifications) were allowed to sit as juror. Now all people, men or , women, deaf or , blind, honest or, dishonest could sit as jurymen. All who are 18 years of age and are listed to th e voter’s list are qualified as jury men. Yes, in the past 800 years or, so the Jury System has changed a lot.So much so that Lord Denning himself considers 19th century to be the golden age of Trial by Jury. But it is not these changes that have led Lord Blackstone in his lectures in 1758 to say: ‘Trial by jury ever has been, and I trust ever will be, looked upon as the glory of the English law†¦. It is the most transcendent privilege which any subject can enjoy, or wish for, that he cannot be affected either in his property, his liberty, or his person, but by the unanimous consent of twelve of his neighbours and equals’ It is the cases decided by the Jury and the way in which one man may be convicted.A person may only be convicted if his equals (or, in the broad sense- the society) finds him to be guilty. Instances have been recorded where the Jury has upheld justice worked for the development of human rights, and even acted as an important check against t he state power. The cases will be discussed later but a special mention to the case of ‘the King’s Brewer and the Seven Bishops’ is to be made here. The verdict of the Jury defied the powers of the king and sent the whole of the country into partying.Also the system brings forth the sense of High Drama, into the courtroom. Nevertheless, the advantages offered such as giving ordinary folks their most useful lessons in citizenship, giving the people an active and decisive part in the administration of justice and in establishment of habit of obedience in law are the very reason (along with fact of being once ruled by England or, having accepted Common Law) that has led a number of countries like America, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Greece and so on to accept the Jury System.Our good motherland, Nepal however has not accepted the Jury System everthough following a moreover mined form or, in its own way a unique form of legal system which is seen to be highl y dominated by the Common Law System. 1. 2 Statement of Problem It is a matter of fact that we find in Nepal the large dominance of the Common Law System. Moreover we can say that Nepal has accepted the Common Law System at large.The characteristic feature of the Common Law System such as precedent, the role of the judge, the role of the lawyers, the power in the judges to make the law and also the power in the judge to interpret and enlarge the scope of the law and so on are found in the Neaplese law. They do show the high influence of the Common Law system into the Nepali Legal System. But one major characteristic trait still remains to be embodied into the Nepali Legal Systems, i. e, the Jury System. The notion to forward the need of Jury system in Nepal can also be done through a little change in the consideration.In many countries of continental Europe and Japan the belief that ‘a single judge is not a judge’ has played significant role in strengthening the quality of justice, therefore they normally compose the bench of three judges even at the trial level. At the appellate level hearing by more than half a dozen judges is a common legal practice. This concept of plural adjudication has not been yet accepted in Nepal, exception to the Supreme Court and Appellate Court where normally two judges decide the case.At the trial level, till today, the case is being decided by one judge, which leads to cause imperfect justice and therefore some sort of dis-satisfaction in the people as seen in Nepal. However, here we necessarily do not need to imply that the Jury system as seen in England is necessary but we may say more definitely and positively, for example: Japanese did not follow the Jury System but accepted the idea of securing assistance from the assistant judges and study groups. Instead of Jury, the Chinese accepted the concept of People Assessors and Judicial Committees making them responsible to find the truth in the case.Even the Indian c ourts, on some ocassions, have begun to compose such study groups and accept the rule of public participation particularly in the LokAdalat. Public participation is an important aspect for the growth in the Judicial culture. Here the Jury will pay a great role to develop public confidence toward justice system. Our system in delivery in justice is incomplete and the incomplete thing could not give complete achievement. Hence, is it not reasonable for Nepal to accept the Jury System?Similarly, the research paper also looks to find the answer to whether creation public participation can cause to solve the dissatisfaction seen towards the Judicial system. In Nepal, we also have the problem of taking any concept as an end and not as a means towards an end. The research paper will also look to give solution towards how we can establish the Jury System as a means towards an end and thus find solution towards some of the existing problems in the Judiciary. It looks to give suggestion towar ds the form in which we can apply the Jury System in Nepal. 1. Hypothesis History is the past wisdom and a storehouse of knowledge. It helps to understand the past, the coming up to the present time and also predict for the future. Nepal is a lucky country as historically she is very rich. The history of Nepal seems to date back way before the time of Lord Krishna and Mahabharata. We also find the mentioning of Nepal in the Vedas. Nepal may not have the concept as known to the world by the name of Jury System. But Nepal certainly has the fundamental notion of the Jury System known to her and to the history as the Panchayat.The adjudication of dispute by the people themselves was done in the Kirat and Lichhavi period through Panchalika and Grampanchayat. This concept fundamental to our land had been lost and resurrected by King Mahendra in the 2019 B. S. constitution. So, it is not necessary as a whole to name the concept next to be introduced in the Judicial System as the Jury Syste m but we can always give the name retaining the portion of history and culture and giving it to some extent the Nepali touch. The concept can be ours and we can always borrow the wisdom of Great Britain for practical usage.Hence, basically the merging up of the system into the Judiciary will give rise to our own set of the Jury System. The 2019 B. S. Constitution had established the various level of Panchayat formally. It was taken moreover as an Administrative body than a judicial one. It had some judicial function. It will only be doing justice to the history if we are to summon once again the local people as Panchayat to participate in the justice administration as a variation of the Jury System. Similarly, while looking towards the notion through the economic standpoint, we are to look at the history of the system in Britain.Its development will certainly give solution to the problem. If we are not to accept the whole developed form and research upon the form in which we can acc ept, then and only then can we establish the Jury System to serve as a means towards an end. The system should suit the country and be accepted by taking into consideration the conditions prevalent in Nepal. The functioning of the system should also be somewhat which will suit our country. For example: we should be able to decide what to what ratio verdict will convict the accused. Similarly, the qualification should also be made taking into consideration of the people.For example: at first instance, all should be qualified but only for the small types of crime. For complex cases of fraud, expert panel should be created or, at least people who can understand should be selected. The internal functioning should be designed to meet the need. The key issue in the research will be amalgamating tradition into the jury, establishing a more need suited Jury System taking into consideration the country as a whole and also to find solution to the economic problem that may arise from accepting the Jury System.However, initially the research paper will establish the Jury System as a positive way forward. 1. 4 General and Specific Objective The objective in general of this study is to establish the need of jury system in the judicial organ of the State and establish it as a positive way forward for the country. The research paper will look to show how this time tested formula will help the people and the State as a whole. At first instance the Jury System looks to work as a check against the State power. But side-by-side it also will be educating the people.The study has the following three specific objectives: 1. To study and recommend ways by which the jury can be made economically viable. 2. To suggest the way in which the Panchayat concept and the jury system be amalgamated in order to form an Anglo-Nepal hybrid Jury System. 3. The research paper will also look to furnish the plan of action: such as the majority needed for conviction, the expertise needed to sit as a j uror in complex cases and/or, political cases, the way in which prejudices can be removed and so on. 1. 5 Rationale of StudyThe main rationale of the study is the need to analyse the Jury system – its pros and cons, its obstacle for acceptance in Nepal and possible solutions and the format in which it is to be applied. Similarly, the research paper also looks to analyse how the acceptance will affect the Judiciary, common people and the nation as a whole. 1. 6 Limitations of Study This study is limited to comparative analysis of the pros and cons of the jury system. This study is also limited in the historical analysis of our own variation of the jury system along with economic problem and the form in which the clay is to be moulded i. . , the working analysis of the system. 1. 7 Research Methodology This study is based on doctrinal method of scientific research. Hence the research methods of field survey and primary empirical data gathering are not applied. Rather it is text ually driven. 1. 8 Organisation of Study For the purpose of conducting the study on the topic, the Seminar Paper will be divided into five chapters: * Chapter 1 deals with the introduction of the jury system and the views pertaining to the system. Chapter 2 deals with explaining the necessity of jury system in Nepal * Chapter 3 deals with Nepal’s own experience in history with a Nepali variation of the system * Chapter 4 deals with problems that may arise if we are to accept the system * Finally, the last Chapter 5 is the concluding chapter which looks to furnish suggestions for the way in which the jury system can be adopted and the problems be countered. 1. 9 Literature Review For the purpose of the research, I have gone through the following research works, books, constitutions and websites. 1.A research paper by Krishna Prasad Sharma Nepal on ‘Restructuring of the Judiciary in Nepal with special reference to Access to Justice’. Here the author has suggested f or restructuring of the judiciary in Nepal, which my work also looks to do. He had not touched upon the issue of jury and my paper looks to do so. 2. Lord Denning, What Next in the Law, London: Butterworth and Co. (Publishers) Ltd, 1982: In this book the author had highlighted upon the jury system and its tradition. He has also mentioned some of the cases decided by jury having high national significance.He also has given the development and certain rules pertaining to the jury system. Similarly, he has given suggestions for improvement. This book is the major source from where the inspiration to write the research paper has been drawn. 3. BishalKhanal, Regeneration of Nepalese Law, Kathmandu: Bhrikuti Academic Publications, 2000: In this book the author has analysed the development of Nepali law and also has pointed out some problems which have created dissatisfaction among the people in the judiciary. 4.RevatiramanKhanal, NepalkoKanooniItihaskoRooprekha, Kathmandu: Appollo Offset Press Pvt. Ltd. ,2059 B. S. : In this book the complete history of Nepal’s legal system has been sketched. From this book, I have taken the fact about the historical concept of the Panchayat and come up with the idea of amalgamation into jury system. 5. Rene David, Major Legal System in the World Today, London: Stevens and Sons Ltd, 1985: In this book the various major legal systems have been analysed. This book helped me understand some of the major characters of the Common Law System. 6.Constitution of Nepal, 2019 B. S. , has also helped in the research for this is the constitution which has formally accepted the Panchayat notion though in a completely different notion in which I purpose to use it. 7. Some websites have really been helpful, most prominently the Wikipedia and also ones linking the Wikipedia with original materials used in the article. Bibliography 1. Lord Denning, What Next in the Law, London: Butterworth and Co. (Publishers) Ltd, 1982 2. Bishal Khanal, Rege neration of Nepalese Law, Kathmandu: Bhrikuti Academic Publications, 2000 3.Revatiraman Khanal, NepalkoKanooniItihaskoRooprekha, Kathmandu: Appollo Offset Press Pvt. Ltd. ,2059 B. S. 4. Rene David, Major Legal System in the World Today, London: Stevens and Sons Ltd, 1985 5. Blackstone Commentries Vol. III ——————————————– [ 2 ]. Lord Denning, What Next in the Law, 1982, London: Butterworth and Co (Publishers) Ltd, p. 33. [ 3 ]. Lysander Spooner in his essay on â€Å"The Trial by Jury† [ 4 ]. Samons, Loren J. (2007). The Cambridge companion to the Age of Pericles. Cambridge University Press. pp. 244, 246. ISBN  978-0-521-80793-7. ttp://books. google. com/books? id=QAePyZ_Z1WkC&pg=PA244&lpg=PA244&dq=dikastai+501+citizens#v=onepage&q=dikastai%20501%20citizens&f=false. [ 5 ]. Acilian Law on the Right to Recovery of Property Officially Extorted, 122 B. C. http://avalon. law. y ale. edu/ancient/acilian_law. asp [ 6 ]. Rene David, Major Legal Systems in the World Today, 1985, London: Stevens and Sons Ltd, p. 311. [ 7 ]. BishalKhanal, Regeneration of Nepalese Law, 2000, Kathmandu: Bhrikuti Academic Publications, p. 35. [ 8 ]. Magna Carta of 1215 – http://www. fordham. edu/halsall/source/magnacarta. html [ 9 ].Lord Denning, What Next in the Law, 1982, London: Butterworth and Co (Publishers) Ltd, p. 37. [ 10 ]. Ibid, p. 37. [ 11 ]. Ibid, p. 62. [ 12 ]. Commentries III, p. 379. [ 13 ]. Lord Denning, What Next in the Law, 1982, London: Butterworth and Co (Publishers) Ltd, pp. 36-52. [ 14 ]. Ibid, p. 33. [ 15 ]. America has embodied the jury system in its constitution. Their Constitution in 1971 Article VI and VII enshrined the provision as being handed down to them by the UK. [ 16 ]. BishalKhanal, Regeneration of Nepalese Law, 2000, Kathmandu: Bhrikuti Academic Publications, p. 38. [ 17 ]. Ibid, p. 38. [ 18 ].Ibid, p. 40. [ 19 ]. For example: We can see t he Parliamentary System adopted in Nepal. The exact copy that of the UK. But what we don’t wish to understand is that the concept of the system was rooted in 1215 with the signing of Magna Carta where we find it was accepted that ‘All men are born free and equal’ and ‘No taxation without representation’. But in Britain the concept gradually developed and from the Glorious Revolution the form came into as a living organism giving the Parliament the sole power. It took a span of more than 400 years. Similarly, also is the case with Political Parties.The wigs and Tories when they were formed, the King himself used to address the General Meeting and Mass Meeting during the election and ask for the people to vote for Tories who were the supporter of the King. Again one noted example will have to be Cormwell’s dissolution of the Upper House to kill King Charles I. Theoretically, the Upper House is a permanent body. They all show any concept is not a n end but a means towards achieving an end. [ 20 ]. It is known that Nepal at some point of time was ruled by the Gopal Dynasty who came here along with Lord Krishna. [ 21 ]. Revati Raman

A Time When Something Unexpected Happened Essay

I would hate to be famous. When you’re famous, you don’t have any privacy. Also, there’s too much criticism. Lastly, it can harm my safety. Being famous isn’t all that great, like you think it is. Many people who are famous have many problems and sometimes wish that they weren’t famous at all. I do not want to be famous. First, when you’re famous, you do not have any privacy. Paparazzi will follow you, and take pictures of every single thing you do. The paparazzi are very aggravating. Also, fans will always be running up to you and asking for autographs or pictures. Lastly, people will always want to know where you’re at and what you’re doing. Second, when you are famous, you have to take a lot of criticism. Critics will always be judging you. They’ll judge you on what you’re wearing, what you’re doing, and even what you’re eating sometimes. Also, haters will have mean remarks or comments. They will also spread rumors about you. Finally, being famous can harm your safety. You might have some mega, crazy fans that may stalk you. Myriad famous people also receive threats, and their lives are put in danger. Super haters may dislike you so much, that they actually attempt to murder you. Many celebrities have been murdered due to hate of the famous person. In conclusion, being famous would be atrocious. Celebrities cannot have a sequestered life what so ever, they are criticized, and they are not safe. You don’t need fame to have an opulent life. Living without fame is just fine, and I have fun without it. I do not want to be famous.

How Many Questions Can You Skip for a Good ACT Score

How Many Questions Can You Skip for a Good ACT Score SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The ACT is a time crunch, and most students have trouble finishing the whole test in the allotted time. So how many questions can you skip for a good score? In this article, I'll let you know how many questions you can skip or answer incorrectly and to get a composite score of 26. I classify a 26 as a good score since it is in the 83rd percentile for all ACT test-takers. However, a good score for youisdependent on what college you hope to attend. Click here for guidance onwhat your target ACT score should be. First, How Is the ACT Scored? Toanswer the questions of how many can you skip for a 26 composite score on the ACT, you must know how the test is scored. In short, the ACT has 4 sections: Math (60 questions), Reading (40 questions), Science (40 questions) and English (75 questions) plus Writing (1 Essay).For further explanation, read How is the ACT Scored? The ACT Essay score is not counted towards your composite score, so I will not be mentioning it in this article. If you want more information on the ACT Essay, read How to Write an ACT Essay: Step by Step Example. On the ACT, you do NOT get points deducted for wrong answers, so it is to your advantage to bubble in any questions you can’t answer.Try to save 30 seconds to a minute at the end of each section to simply pick a letter to bubble in for the questions you skip. Each section is graded separately. First, you get a raw score for each which is simply the number of questions you answered correctly and then that raw score is converted into a scaled score.The raw to scale score conversion changes each test date, but the ACT shared the below table in the Preparing for the ACT guide as an example: After calculating the scale score for the sections, your 4 section scores are added together and divided by 4 (i.e. averaged), and the final number is your composite score.If your score ends up as a decimal, it is rounded, e.g.if it is a 25.4, it is rounded to 25, and if it is 25.5, it is rounded to 26. Having explained that I will now answer the original question: How Many Questions Can You Get Wrong or Skip and Get a Good Score? The answer is a little more complex than one simple number (I will explain this further).The reason the answer is more complex is that the scoring for each section of the test is different, and the scoring for each section varies by test date (as you can see in the chart above and as I will explain further below). Since you are not penalized for wrong answers, incorrect answers and skips will result in the same score.There are a large number of combinations of individual section scores that would result in a 26 composite score. Here are some of the breakdowns: (26+26+26+26) / 4 = 26 (26+26+26+25) / 4 = 25.75 (rounds up to 26) (26+26+25+25) / 4 = 25.5 (rounds up to 26) (26+26+26+24) / 4 = 25.5 (rounds up to 26) NOTE: you cannot get a 23 on any individual section if you want to get a composite score of 26 unless you get a section score of higher than 26. As I said, the scoring of each section varies by test date. So to give you a better idea of the typical number of questions you can get wrong/skip for a 26 in each section, I have analyzed 5 different ACT score charts: Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 English 13-14 14-15 14-15 14-15 14-15 Mathematics 16-17 18-19 16-18 16-17 18-20 Reading 10 12 9 Science 7 7-8 9-10 10 9-10 Total 46-48 51-54 50-54 49-51 52-56 Overall, you can skip/get wrong around 50 questions per ACT test to get a composite score of 26. For English, you can skip/miss 14 questions on average to get a 26. For Math, you can skip/miss 17 questions on average to get a 26. For Reading, you can skip/miss questions on average to get a 26. For Science, you can skip/miss 9 questions on average to get a 26. What Should Your Skipping Strategy Be? Knowing this information and hoping to get a 26 composite score, you should plan to skip up to: about 1 full passagein English (14 out of 15 questions in the last passage) 17 in Math 1 full passage in Reading (10 questions) 1 full passage in Science (5-7 questions)* *For Science, I would recommend skipping the Conflicting Viewpoints passage since it is the longest with 7 questions and, therefore, the most time consuming. Plan your exact skipping strategy based on your strengths and weaknesses. Try to maximize the number you skip in your weakest section. Minimize the number you skip in your strongest section. For example, if you struggle in Reading, plan to skip at least one entire passage. If your strength is Math, try just skipping the last 10 questions. This way you can hopefully maximize your score in Math to balance out your lower score in Reading. You need to be using the skipping strategy during your ACT preparation! Do not just try to implement this strategy the day of the test. This skipping strategy requires practice since you will need to learn a new test pace.If you had been attempting to complete all questions, you were likely going at a much faster pace. You will need to slow it down and give yourself more time per question. Also, you will need to figure out exactly what number of skipped questions will give you your target score. For example, while you can skip about one full passage in English (14 out of 15 questions) and get a 26, you may answer 10 questions incorrectly in the 4 passages you do complete, bringing your score below 26. If this happens, try to skip only half a passage (7 questions) on your next English practice test.Try to skip the maximum allowed during your first practice test then change the amount based on whether your score goes up or down. STRATEGIZE! Plan to spend the entire time allocated except for the last minute on those questions. That way, you get more time per question and do not rush to answer more questions and make more mistakes. If you do have extra time, I would recommend reviewing the answers you were unsure of and NOT attempting any new questions. However, if you felt confident about your answers and have extra time, you should attempt a few more. During the last minute on each section before time is called, simply bubble in A, B, C, D, E F, G, H, J or K for all of the answers you could not get to. (Note: there is no E or K on English, Reading, or Science.) You should choose two corresponding letters, for example, A and F, to bubble in. As I said, there is no penalty for guessing on the ACT.By bubbling the same letter for all of the ones you couldn’t get to, you give yourself a 25% chance in English, Reading and Science (1 out of 4 answer choices) or a 20% in Math (1 out of 5 answer choices) of getting each guessed question correct.If you got all of the questions you attempted correct, you would most likely score higher than a 26 by also bubbling insince you will likely randomly get a few of those â€Å"correct.† Could you theoretically skip more questions? While it would be possible to skip more, bubble in, and get a composite score of 26, I would not risk it. Occasionally, the letter you choose to bubble in may result in 0 extra points if it wasn’t the answer to a single question you guessed on, and then your score would end up lower than 26.Don’t risk it. Stick to the outlined plan. What’s Next? Need help preparing for the ACT? Check out guides to the ACT Reading, Math, English, and Science sections.Taking the ACT very soon? Read our guide to cramming for the test. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school.Also, figure out yourtarget ACT score. Thinking about getting a job while in high school? Check out our guide to the 8 best jobs for teensand learn how to find yours! Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by ACT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. 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World War II through the 1970s Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

World War II through the 1970s - Essay Example Nations have become aware of political, social and military implications of the war. World War II created a number of turning points which have impacted the current American society, politically, economically and socially. The results of the war II came up with civil rights, awareness and programs. 2.0 World War II: Turning points and impacts During the 1970s, there were two major historical turning points. One of the major turning points included the 1945 October 24 establishment of United Nations; this was one of the two international organizations that were created during the 20th century by the United Kingdom, United States and the Soviet Union. The United Nations was regarded as the League of Nations which by then, represented one hundred and ninety members from well recognized states. The purpose of the United Nations organization was to promote and maintain peace initiatives among different countries, it also tried to promote nations to work with friendly relations. The fundam ental aspects that were outlined included; saving Nations from conflicts and wars, reaffirming human fundamental rights and setting guidelines on treaties that were justifiable to a number of obligations and source of conflicts, it also created international laws to monitor and safeguard various Nations well being. Other organizations that were set up later included the NATO; this organization was established as a military alliance in 1949 and aimed to develop an overweight and powerful soviet army (Barret, 1998). The second major historical turning point that occurred during the World War II was the Watergate scandal; this was a complex network of politically serious scandals which occurred in the period of 1972-1974. It led to mistrust among political leaders and tax evasions which led to an assertion that no one was above the law. This turning point directly signified a well hypothesized mistrust towards a number of elected leaders, but positively it demonstrated the power create d by the new media, additionally it provided the constitutions checks and balances that could be used to curtail execution powers (Strathman, 1994). The impact of historical turning points of World War II during the last 20 years and over saw a number of street crimes, poverty emerging drastically, a number of infrastructures diminishing, other buildings started to decay and become part of city lives. This impacted the American economical state, due to its severity the World War II brought about a number of changes on how wars brought about a number of changes if fought politically by use of ideologies and tactical warfare. United States continued to become a super power by conquering and commanding the world food market industry, nations then began to seek lands so as to control majority of the world’s wealth. The reset of war II prompted numerous expeditions and mobilization of American resources. In addition to this, quiet industries were revitalized, the agricultural sect or grew and the economy boomed growing from low production to a strong powerful economy. Politically, the World War II initiated a major significant factor which was federal management of the economy (Strathman, 1994). 3.0. Aftermath of war: civil rights, and programs Before the Second World War, during the 1930s, America strived to stay out of conflicts, it was a diverse of opinions with Americans arguing that Europe was already in a mess and it was not ideally wise to engage the country in another bloody war like the First World War. Americans wanted the allied Nations to prevail, wanting the US to directly stay out of the war. This made them to guard and safeguard their own interests. The women took part in winning the war by